The Transition of Alchemy to Chemistry
The word ‘alchemy’ conjures up images of cauldrons, sorcerer’s labs, magic, and gold. However, contrary to popular belief and the shroud of magic and mystery, alchemy has played an essential role in the evolution of modern chemistry.
The etymology of alchemy defines it as “the medieval chemical science, the great objects of which were to transmute base metals into gold and to discover the universal cure for diseases and means of indefinitely prolonging life”. Subsequently, alchemists were known as the one “given to the study or practice of alchemy”. The study of alchemy involved the quest for the universal solvent, quintessence, in the mid-14th century. The term originated from the French word ‘alchimie’, the 13th century Medieval Latin term ‘alquemie’, the Arabic ‘al-kimiya’, and the c.300. C.E. Greek term ‘khemeioa’. Etymological research found that these terms possibly originated from the Greek term the word ‘khymeia’, which was concerned with infusions of plants, the very quest of Alexandrian alchemists, which subsequently evolved into modern chemistry, and thus led to the association of the art with Ancient Egypt.
Alchemy was adopted by the Arabs from the Alexandrians and entered Europe via Arabic Spain. Alchemy was, therefore, the ‘chemistry’ of the Middle Ages and early modern era, concerning both occult and natural philosophy, along with practical chemistry and metallurgy. The study encompassed physics, medicine, astrology, mysticism, spiritualism, and art, aspiring to find the ‘elixir of life’ that would bring wealth, health and immortality to the drinker, the ‘philosopher’s stone’ which would turn into gold upon heating and combination with metals egg. copper, and lastly, to explore the human relationship with the cosmos.
Science and alchemy go parallel, with Alexandria as a mutual point. Alchemists were notorious for employing the scientific method more earnestly than any other scientists in the Medieval Ages and made a significant contribution to the chemistry of metals and compounds.
The Suidas credits Egypt as the ‘home of alchemy, as well as pseudo-science. Many a great story was told about the origins of the art of alchemy. Some attributed it to, Isis, Miriam the sister of Moses, etc. By the by, the best invention was that of the ‘holy mystery’ by the philosopher Democritus of Greece, which takes us back to Alexandria, where an abundance of legends sprung up under the name of an atomistic philosopher, Bolos of Mendes
Works on alchemy fall into two categories, mainly the Leyden Papyrus and the Collection. While the former is purely technical and devoid of mysticism, the latter recounts practical work interwoven with mystical ideas, while the last presents commonsense work joined with magical thoughts. By the end of the Middle Ages, the alchemic mystery was far from solved and existing writings had become a patchwork of allegorical commentary, until the 18th century brought about a ‘revolution’ and return to practical work, beginning the modern science of chemistry.
The Lyden Papyrus, found in the early part of the 19th century, contain a great mass of recipes and prescriptions for apprentices. However, closer observation shows an interwoven superstition, i.e. the art of the metalworker was perceived as magic. While alchemy, in the proper sense of the word, is not found in the papyri, a large number of recipes produce an alloy of baser metals. Two of them, in particular, use a ‘never-ending material’ and a special kind of asemon which is an alloy of gold and silver, acting as a leaven which changes the base foundation of lesser metals into gold. Here, we see a real chemical action taking place.
At this point, the second group of chemical literature, the Collection, comes into play. Its most fundamental treatise, authored by Democritus, bears in its recipes strikingly similar to those contained in the Papyrus. The treatise also included originally not only the science of commutation but likewise that of imitating precious stones and dyeing cloth. The mystic element, however, is in full force. The technical part is introduced by a fabulous tale of the recovery of the treatise from a secret vault, and the mystic saying “Nature rejoices in nature, nature conquers nature, nature rules over nature” is repeated throughout the work. These works are fundamental because they exist in the absence of other works and enable us to trace the development of alchemy.
Beginning from the purely practical basis of fraudulent craftsmanship, in Egypt, alchemy found its development in the home of mystic humbug, Alexandria. Here, it fell under the influence of a mixture of religions, of mysticism and Syncretism philosophy. Conforming partly to the ideas of Christianity, alchemy escaped the condemnation of the Church and was carried to Constantinople, where it nestled in various libraries. On the other hand, Syrian translation led alchemy to the Arabs, who then carried it to the West, where it reached Europe and flourished until superseded by truly scientific methods, thus finally flowing into the broad stream of true and modern chemistry.
To truly dissect alchemy, form an anthropological perspective, one must explore the relationship between alchemy and philosophy and religion. The research works of Usener, and Schmekel show the significant influence of the Stoic school of thought on the development of popular beliefs. Regarding alchemy, however, the proof had been furnished as early as 1856 by Prantl in an article that contained expositions of the philosophical elements in ancient alchemy. The Stoics, in the endeavor to prove that the cosmos was permeated from the Divine, became the passionate defenders of magic, alchemy, and astrology. In the 2nd and 3rd centuries, the jumble of philosophies forms the Ionians to Neo-Platonism, gained ascendency, which was eagerly adopted by alchemists.
Alchemy was not averse to borrowing from other pseudo-sciences. It was deeply inspired by Astrology, under the influence of Stoic ideas. Some treatises take account of planetary aspects, and the theory that planets exercise a profound sympathetic influence over the parts of the universe found its expression in small but significant scripts by a sort of planetary notation. For example, the sign of the Sun was attributed to gold, while the moon was for silver and Hermes for quicksilver (later known as Mercury). Syncretism philosophy, or Gnosis, as widely known, was o less influential, creating distinctions between corporeal and incorporeal expressions. This leads us to the sphere of religion.
In alchemy, all religions jumbled up into a chaotic mess: Everything is ‘One and All’. Nevertheless, individual deities such as Kronos, Hermes, and Aphrodite played a significant part as well (Hastings, 1908). Alchemists were not averse to incorporate Judaism and Christianity either. On the whole, Usener’s view of the Gnostic speculations can sum up religion’s part in alchemy: “Like a sultry breath of air carrying to us wondrous scents from an unapproachable garden, such as the impression of the Gnostic (and alchemistic) teachings”.
Now that Greek, Egyptian and Roman alchemy has been discussed, let us look towards Muhammedan alchemy. Where the Greeks were mostly confined to industrial experience and vague hypothesis, the Saracens introduced the scientific experimental method, record-keeping, and observation. They invented the alembic (al-anbiq), differentiated between alkalis and acids, and studied, and manufactured, hundreds of medicinal drugs. Alchemy, inherited by the Muslims from Egypt through Syrian translations, contributed to chemistry by numerous discoveries and the alchemic method, which was the most scientific in the Medieval Ages.
The oldest Arabic author who wrote about alchemy was Halid. There are three letters on alchemy which have been ascribed to him and is said to have a treatise dedicated to him. The historian Ibn Haldun questioned the authenticity of Halid’s alchemical works, on the account of the fact that Halid was a Bedawi Arab who lived before the time of the scientific activity of the Arabs and therefore could not have been acquainted with a complicated science such as alchemy.
The second prominent name is Jabir ibn Haiyan (702–65), known as Geber in Europe. Geber became illustrious and legendary in Christian Middle Ages. He flourished approx. in the year A.H. 160 (A.D. 776). Several works are attributed to him, with 22 Arabic titles placed under his name, chiefly in the 10th century. Latin treatises such as the ‘Book of Jo’ strongly influenced the development of European chemistry. There were several renowned alchemists in the 3rd cent. A.H. The works of two of the most notorious alchemists survive: alchemical works of Dhu-n-Nun al-Misri of Ikhmim (A.D. 859) and works of Ibn al-Wahshiya, i.e. ‘Treasury of Wisdom’. In the 4th century, the philosopher al-Razi, also known as ‘Razes’ gained prominence through his study of alchemy.
The alchemical doctrine appears among Arabs under a very philosophical aspect, implying certain ideas on the nature of physical matter which are derived from general philosophy. The alchemists were connected to the Neo-Platonic school of thought, which developed in the Muslim world in the 10th century (4th A.H.). Moreover, the tendency towards mysticism is apparent in two ways: 1) by founding the art of alchemy on a revelation which has received by ancient prophets, e.g. by Hermes of the Quran; or 2) by making moral conditions intervene in the production of the great work, i.e. God cooperates in the undertaking, and the alchemist must prepare himself for this Divine cooperation by ‘purity of heart’.
It was a widespread custom among occult-subject writers, to connect metals with the planets. For example, Gold is connected to the Sun, Silver to the Moon, and other metals e.g., Mercury, Iron, Tin, and Lead to Mercury, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn, respectively (Hastings, 1908). Though this connection is attributed to the Sabaeans, the part played by Syrian translators in the preservation and handing down of scientific knowledge is even greater and better known than that of the Sabaeans. It was through Syrian works that the Arabs first became acquainted with the great Greek alchemists, especially Zosimus
Hastings (1903) states that the basic doctrine of alchemy states that metals differ from each other in degree, but not in nature and that any one of the baser metals, e.g. copper or lead, may be transmuted into a more ‘perfect’ metal like silver or gold. This implies an idea frequently expressed by alchemists, regarding the ‘life’ of the mineral. The metal is regarded as a living being which forms in the ‘womb of the earth’, where it is subjected to numerous conditions which hinder it’s perfection, so to speak. Dieterici remarks that the treatise is conceived upon Aristotelian, or rather Neo-Platonic, principles. Geber’s works expound the notion of the life of metals, an anthropomorphic theory that is consistently applied to mineralogy, applied human-like attributes to metals. Al-Habib expresses this doctrine, observing that the life of metals requires time and that nature spends thousands of years to bring metals to the perfect state, i.e. of gold, according to alchemist traditions. Moreover, the anthropomorphic theory also applied ideas of matter, mind, life, and death to chemical bodies. In this sense, the notion of occult forces is interesting; these subtle, intangible invisible forces are compared to ‘spiritual forces’, e.g. the magnetic force which attracts iron, and poison which permeates the organism called ‘spiritual forces’. (Hastings, 1908).
It is difficult to point out the exact contribution of Muslim scholars to chemical discoveries as the most ancient Arabic works are either versions of, or commentaries on, Greek works such as that of Crates. The discoveries of aqua regalis, sulphuric acid, nitric acid and silver nitrate, which had been attributed to Geber, were not found in his works. Rather, they were discovered in a few Latin pamphlets at the end of the 13th century. It is probable, however, that Arabs significantly developed chemistry with regards to medicine and the art of enameling and dyeing. Al-Kindi, besides others, wrote about coloring matters, glassmaking, and the procession of removing stains from cloth. Arab science is often criticized for being ‘sullied with occultism’, except in optics where it excelled in the “synthesis of accumulated results than in original findings or systematic research”. The Arabs developed the experimental method which is the greatest tool of modern science.
Alchemy entered Europe through Muslim-conquered Spain (Durant, 1997). J. Ferguson observed that: “It was in Spain, to which it had been brought by the Arabs, that the art first found place in Europe”. From the 10th century onwards, the translation of Arabic texts into Latin led to spread of alchemical works into Europe, leading to the ultimate development of chemistry through alchemical research. Notable translations were those of Robert of Chester and Plato of Tivoli, who translated treatises and thus stimulated the growth of alchemy and chemistry in Europe. Gerbert, later known as Pope Sylvester II (999–1003), was among the first to reap the benefits of revival of learning in Europe. As a student, he went to Spain, where he studied arithmetic, geometry, chemistry and astrology. After Gerbert succeeded to the Papacy in 999, the knowledge of Spain flowed into France and Italy (Hudson, 2012)
Gerard of Cremona is hailed as one of the greatest translators. Impressed by Arabic works on science and philosophy, Gerard set out to translate a total of 71 important works on science, astrology, philosophy, geometry and alchemy. A few of them are Aristotle’s ‘Posterior Analytics’, works of Alexander of Aphrodisias, Euclid’s ‘Elements and Data’, Archimedes’ ‘On the Measurement of the Circle’, works on Greek astronomy, Geo-Arabic physics, Arab mathematics, geomancy, astronomy and medicine by Al-Razi, Al-Kindi and Avicenna. His contribution to the spread of knowledge is unmatched, except perhaps by Hunain ibn Ishaq and al-Mamun’s ‘House of Wisdom’ which played a significant role in the transmission of Greek science and philosophy to the Arab world (Durant, 1997)
Michael Scoot was among the first to bring alchemy to its height of fame in Europe, under the patronage of Frederick II. He translated Aristotle’s work on the ‘Natural History from the Arabic’. Ferguson remarks: “At Toledo, he learnt magic for which the city was famous — natural magic or experimental physics or jugglery, as well as black magic, involving the invocation of the infernal powers. There, too, he experimented in Alchemy”. As a result of these studies, Scott produced the ‘Liber de Alchimia’ (Hastings, 1908).
The study of alchemy influenced by Middle Age Scholasticism is attributed to Albert the Great, who is called the “magnus in magia, major in philosophia, maximus in theologia” by the Great Chronicles of Belgium (1480). Hasting (1908) narrates that Albert’s “Libellus de Alchimia is a practical treatise on the transmutation of metals, the structure of furnaces, and the various methods to be used in the study of alchemy”. The work discusses alchemy as an art, speaking of the Elixir, along with astrological terms attributed to gold and metal i.e. the Sun and Moon respectively. The interesting fact is that he also mentions fermentation and chemical reactions in “equivalent terms”.
Roger Bacons is yet another individual who significantly advanced alchemy in Europe. Beginning his study on alchemy before 1250, Bacons was exiled around 1257. His major works include the Opus Majus, the Opus Minus, Opus Tertium and the Compendium Philosophie. The Opus Majus is silent on alchemy, but the Opus Minus and Compendium Philosophie discuss practical and speculative alchemy. Speculative alchemy, as defined by Bacons, is the “science of the generation of things from elements, while Practical alchemy “teaches ‘how to make noble metals and colors’ and ‘the art of prolonging life’”(Hastings, 1908).
Two of the most prominent figures in alchemy in the late 13th century are Raymondus Lullius and Arnold of Villanova. Lullius, born of Spaniard noble patronage, devoted himself to study and mission in Africa, compiling works which were a combination of “spiritual devotion and scientific research, with a passionate enthusiasm for the conversion of the Moors”. In his will, he stated that he had turned into gold “22 tons of quicksilver, lead and tin”. On the other hand, Arnold of Villanova studied among the Arabs in Spain and is said to have successfully converted iron bars into pure gold (Hastings, 1908).
Alchemy flourished in Europe well into the 14th century, inspired by the masters of the 13th century. John Cremer, John Rupercriss, Petrus Bonus and Nicholas Flamel are the prominent alchemists of the 14th century. Rupercriss’ Liber lucis showcases a picture of a furnace in which the “incubation of the philosophic egg whence issues the marvelous quintessence” was practiced. Petrus, in his book Preciosa Margarita novella de Thesauro ac pretiosissimo Philosophorum Lpaide, writes about the philosopher’s stone and draws comparisons between its chemical reactions and those of yeast, an early indication of chemical science in the occult alchemy (Hastings,1908). Some works attribute Nicholas Flamel may have discovered the elixir of life in 1382.
The 15th century produced great alchemists such as Basil Valentine and George Ripley and. Valentine is credited author of the Triumphal Car of Antimony, while George Ripley authored ‘The Compound of Alchemy, or the Ancient Hidden Art of Alchemie: Containing the right and perfectest means to make the Philosopher’s Stone, Aurum potabile, with other excellent Compounds’. His ‘Twelve Gates of Alchemy’ shed a light on alchemical methods used in the 15th century, i.e. Calcination, Solution, Separation, Conjunction, Putrefaction, Congelation, Cibation, Congelation, Sublimation, Fermentation, Exaltation, Multiplication and Projection.
Moving on, the 16th century experienced further development of alchemic art into the more ‘exact sciences’ of chemistry and medicine. Paracelsus, physician by practice, was both a sceptic as well as a critic of the alchemic ideology and method. It appears that he discovered the “circulation of blood”, along with the use of laudanum. The Swiss alchemist believed that alkahest, an undiscovered element, was the Philosopher’s stone, from which the 4 elements (fire, water, earth and air) derive. Paracelsus was among the first to recognize the potential of investigating the physical world for medicinal purposes and founded the school of Iatro-Chemistry or Medical Chemistry. This “synthesis of chemistry was of very great benefit to each science”. He also supported the Tria Prime, also known as the Sulphur-Mercury-Salt Theory, which gained widespread acceptance among the alchemic world. These works, along with many other influential writings, were translated by oculists like A. E. Waite. Jules Andrieu states: “He is the pioneer of modern chemists and the prophet of a revolution in general science”.
After the 16th century, the scientific element began to drift apart from alchemy, which began to be perceived as ‘mystical’ or ‘occult’. With the shift of “natural philosophy into experimental natural philosophy” around 1650, the instrumental scientific method began to gain significance due to its central role of in practical chemistry and physics, and, as Morrison notes, “has since been crucial to the emergence of new theories of matter”. Regarding the growing rift between alchemy and chemistry, Frazer notes: “the conception of the elemental forces as personal agents is giving way to the recognition of natural law”, and “Magic…….reappears from the obscurity and discredit into which it had fallen, and by investigating the causal sequences in nature, directly prepares the way for science” (Frazer, 1998, p. 92).
The early 17th century, saw the rise of the brotherhood of Rosicrucians, who stemmed from Hermetic ideas and brought the “occult mysteries of earlier alchemists again into notice” (Hastings, 1908). Frances Yates noted that “the leading themes of the Rosicrucian manifestos, Magia, Cabala, and Alchymia united in an intensely religious outlook which included a religious approach to all the sciences of number” (Morrison, 2007, p. 17). Rosicrucianism had a pure alchemical core and was revived in many forms. Mesmerism and Spiritualism were two popular forms of revival of the occult, succeeded by a number or Hermetic, Rosicrucian and Theosophical societies which sprung up, dedicated to “alchemy and ritual magic”. According to Harding (2019), significant figures who played a role in the rebirth of “Classical Greek Atomism” were: Robert Boyle, Francis Bacon, René Descartes and Pierre Gassendi. Boyle (1627–1692) was a distinguished alchemist before the advent of chemistry. A prominent member of the Royal Society, Boyle believed in the transmutation of metals, and carried out numerous experiments to prove the theory. In his book, The Skeptical Chemist (Oxford, 1680) Boyle discusses the “first statement of the molecular or atomic idea in chemical philosophy”and demonstrates “problems that arise from alchemy”. He further argued that Paracelsus’ theories of the Tria Prima (Sulphur-Mercury-Salt) were “totally inadequate to explain chemistry” (Harding, 2019). Moreover, Boyle saw the science of chemistry as a science of substance composition, rather than a mere stem of alchemy. Ackroyd (2007) noted that Newton also studied alchemy for a while at Cambridge University, during the same time period. However, following the changing attitudes in favor of ‘purely scientific’ methods, traditional alchemic methods were pushed to the side.
Hastings (1908) observes that alchemy was condemned by Dr. Price and Semler in the 18th century. Price boasted to having transmuted mercury into silver and gold, but when he was asked to repeat the experiment in the presence of the Royal Society, he committed suicide. Semler also claimed to have found gold from the ‘Salt of Life’. Later, it was found that the gold was actually deposited by Semler’s servant, and thus alchemy was shamed in Germany.
By the end of the seventeenth century, chemistry had almost entirely separated from alchemy, following the Scientific Revolution. As a result Chemistry became acknowledged as a science, along with mathematics, physics, biology, and geology. Asprem (2017) notes that, following the 18th century, there was a “grand-scale rejection of entire fields of superseded knowledge in natural philosophy, most notable alchemy and astrology”. By the 1720s, alchemy had become disreputable in the eyes of pioneers such as Boyle, who criticized it’s mystical elements and dismissed it as non-scientific. Morrison (2007) further observes that by the late 19th and early 20th century, the instruments used by alchemists e.g. the alembic, had been demoted to the “prehistory of chemistry”, replaced by ‘more scientific’ and sophisticated instruments e.g. the cathode ray tube, cloud chamber and spectroscope. However, it is essential to note that alchemy did not die out at once. Remnants of it lingered on near the end of the 18th century.
The final blow to alchemy came through Dalton’s Atomic Theory in the beginning of the 19th century, which was established as a “working hypothesis in practical chemistry” Under the Law of Elements, the alchemic idea of transmutation was deemed impossible and fictional. However, the discovery of ‘isolation of the element radium’ and Becquerel rays in the early 20th century by M. Curie opened the vault to occultism, leading chemists to “conceive the idea of transmutation of the elements”. The Leicester Meeting of August3rd, 1907, was a prominent event in the history of chemical science. 3 discoveries were announced: 1) the electron, 2) the radioactive emanations from radium, and 3) the fact that Helium and Lead were produced when the emanations were isolated, and a new element, argon, was produced when the emanations were dissolved in cooper. These properties of radium almost seem to “realize the ancient dreams of the alchemists”
Alchemy is indeed somewhat different from chemistry in the sense that it is both scientific and spiritual, thus merging science and synthetic magic. However, one must not reject occult alchemy on grounds of mysticism, as it holds far greater in philosophical depth as compared to modern chemistry. Alchemical thinking aided chemists to decipher the atom and radioactive emanations, without which there may not have been any inclination towards studying the nature of metals, which led to significant scientific discoveries. All in all, alchemy laid the groundwork for scientific development, the values and results of which are evident in the present.